Biochemistry can be defined as the discipline that uses the principles and languages of chemistry to explain biology. In another words, both biology and chemistry are dependant to each other when biochemistry-related topics were discussed especially when it comes to organic chemistry since both fields involves specific mechanism under specific reation. However, organic chemists usually settle and handle the reaction by conducting experiments in the laboratory. On the other hand, biochemists are the one responsible in analysing and comprehending the synthesis of the reaction or how the reaction takes place.
The major emphasis that is needed to be taken into account is the correlation and perfect synergy between those two fields in which leads to numerous breakthrough and top-notch, world-wide recognised achievements, and they are namely the development of vaccines throughout the century, the existence of anti-viral medicines , the discovery of the roles of enzymes as catalysts and other countless of them will make their debut to the world of biochemistry in the future.
Biochemistry is a powerful component of biology that mainly describes the structure, organization, and function of living organisms in molecular terms where the details of each components are accurately presented which helps students to understand the overall view and concept of any related topics in a clear manner. This aspect particularly will help us to achieve our first course learning outcome that is to outline the fundamental biochemical principles such as the structure and function of biomolecules. Biochemistry constitutes three major areas of studies. Firstly, the area of study focuses on conformational study in which explains the thee-dimensional arrangements of biomolecules. Secondly, the metabolism study which displays the biochemical pathways such as Kreb cycle and production of energy such as glycolysis. Thirdly and also the last one is informational study in which involves the language for communication inside and between the cells such as the signal transduction.
Other than that, I manage to memorise all the important non-metallic elements which plays a vital role that act as the backbone of the biomolecules. They are arranged in a way that helps me and the others to memorise easily, it is arranged as CHNOPS and constitutes more than 97% of the weight of most organisms. They act as the backbone of the biomolecules due to the capability of forming strong covalent bond.
Hello there, as for this post, this is somehow the last writing post I will be doing. It is somehow sad, and quite despondent. Nevertheless, I would like to share my thoughts and experiences on this course, the journey I had alongside the tasks given, not to forget our beloved lecturer, Dr. Hashimatul, with her teachings and effort in giving her best for us in succeeding this course.
First and foremost, I would like to wish my greatest gratitude that I was given the opportunity in taking this course STB 1083: Biochemistry, as it is per required for my program, Resource Chemistry. Biochemistry is the discipline that uses the principles and language of chemistry to explain biology. As a matter of fact, biochemistry is very closely related to organic chemistry where organic organic chemists are more interested in reactions that take place in the laboratory, whereas biochemists would like to understand how reactions occur in living cells. So it is undeniable that chemistry and biology are heavily related and bring about many breakthroughs in the world of science, hence biochemistry field is one of the most important component in science.
Our first class was a more of an ice-breaking session with our lecturer, Dr. Hashimatul. We were told to introduce ourselves as briefly as possible. Afterwards, we head straight to out first lesson which is the Introduction to Biochemistry. The lessons went on quite well and the content was well-managed with the given time-frame for the course. Our class was scheduled twice a week, 2 hours on Tuesday morning and another hour on Friday evening. After the first lesson was settled, we were asked to create an eportfolio with specific tasks to be completed based on our learning outcomes as it is part of our major assessment for the course. Our lecturer always reminds us to complete the tasks as early as possible so that amendments can be made as regularly as possible to avoid losing marks for our eportfolio.
Apart from that, I personally find it intriguing and entertaining when a quick quiz Kahoot session is conducted after each lesson were covered. By participating for the quiz, we are able to recall back and tests out our depth of understanding on the lessons that has been delivered. It was somehow a nerve-racking situation but we ended up enjoying it more than taking it seriously. In addition, the questions included in the Kahoot session can be very helpful for our examination and can also be the source of reference for tasks completion of our eportfolio.
Furthermore, our lecturer has always been giving us several useful and effective tips for our middle-semester examination conducted on the past week 7. They are exceptionally informative and concise. I personally find the tips given was extraordinarily a booster to my understanding towards lessons incorporated in the middle-semester examination. I am happy that the tips and the way of teaching was efficiently adequate for us students to to do well for our examination.
However, after a contagious disease, an outbreak that occurs worldwide or simply known as COVID-19, our classes and lessons were required to be conducted online via the platform E-Leap. In spite of the classes being held online, our lecturer still keeps in touch with us students, and continuously giving simple tasks for the rest of the lessons that hasn’t been delivered, in light of the pandemic. The simple tasks is sufficiently effective and useful for our ongoing eportfolio tasks as they covers everything from the lecture notes. Moreover, initiatives done by our lecturers in producing a quick-mini video, summarizing on each lesson included in the course is something that I look forward to. They were presented with feasible language, concise content, and very presentable with moderate and colorful animations. It is indeed useful as students like us needed something to entertain us in the midst of completing the assignments given.
Practical and Problem-based learning (PBL) sessions were also conducted online in light of the COVID-19 outbreak. Simulation results was given to us students in order to complete our lab report as it is a part of our continuous assessment for the course. It is truly a loss for us students for not being able to carry out the practical sessions physically, but a video explaining the gist of the content for the practical sessions were published. Watching the video might seems trivial, but trust me, it can be very informative and helpful as it provides many important and vital information of the practical sessions. Moreover, PBL session discussion was conducted in groups. As for our group, we discussed and communicated with each other via Google Hangout & Zoom app. Since everything was conducted online, our PBL session format has ultimately changed from rather than than speaking and presenting own’s facts and findings physically, it was changed to a dialogue report format. The drastic change in format was quite challenging for us, but it can be as effective as presenting physically by visualing the dialogues with our imagination. It can be tiring to read, but it can ultimately enhance our knowledge on a certain particular topic.
So there it goes, those are my two cents on this course. It has been a wonderful and beautiful journey and I would always cherish them in my memory. It has been a great and fruitful time spent on this course. I wish everyone the best of luck and never forget how biochemistry has widened our horizon and they can be very useful in our daily life. Thank you to Dr. Hashimatul for your endless efforts and advises for keeping us updated and stay focused in achieving the learning outcomes of this course. I hope everyone can achieve the best for this course, STB 1083: Biochemistry. Goodbye and have a great day ahead! Signing off now…
Regards, Danish bin Abdul Razak (64690)
“Science is a way of thinking much more than it is a body of knowledge.”
Hey, there in this post, it is going to be about metabolic processes, as the title speaks for themselves. Generally, there are three major types of metabolic processes that I’ve encountered multiple of times. They are glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and electron transport chain, respectively. On top of that, we also had another Problem-based learning (PBL) session that specifically highlights on those metabolic processes. The trigger of the PBL session can be seen below:
“A 23-year old man developed an irregular heart rhythm, complained lethargy, tremor of hands and arms. He complained about anxiety, sweating and hunger. Biochemical investigation on blood revealed blood sugar levels is 2.7 mmol/.”
Therefore, our discussion was mainly to relate the situation based on the trigger with the metabolic processes, as well as possible prognosis of the man’s actual condition. Nevertheless, we have managed to come up with a conclusion that the man is hypoglycemic. We have also prepared a FILA table based on our learning issues. The FILA table can be referred in the attachment below:
On top of that, our subgroup have also prepared a Youtube video explaining on the metabolic processes. We have tried our best to come up with our utmost creativity to summarize the metabolic processes despite them being a lengthy and quite convoluted process. Not to forget that, we also refer to the lecture notes to make sure that the content of the video is well-produced and in a correct flow. Below shows the link to our video on Youtube, don’t forget to check them out!
As you can see from the title, in this post, I will be sharing on the lessons I’ve gone through on lipids.
Lipids are molecules that contain hydrocarbons and make up the building blocks of the structure and function of living cells and they can be categorised based on polarity namely non-polar lipids and polar lipids. Other than that, they are also soluble in organic solvents.
Lipids are further categorised into a number of groups and they are: 1) Fatty acids 2) Triacylglycerols 3) Glycerophospholipids 4) Sphingolipids 5) Isoprenoids
Fatty acids
Fatty acid is a carboxylic acid with a long aliphatic chain, which is either saturated or unsaturated and they are an important component of lipids in animals, plants, and even microorganisms. If the carbon-to-carbon bonds are all single, the acid is saturated, whereas if any of the bonds is double or triple, the acid is unsaturated and is more reactive. They compose of saturated chains that packs tightly to form more rigid and organized aggregates. On the other hand, unsaturated chains bend and pack in less ordered way, with greater potential for motion.
There are a few common and widely distributed fatty acids namely the C16 and C18 fatty acids, otherwise known as palmitic acid and stearic acid, respectively.
Both palmitic and stearic acids occur in the lipids of the majority of organisms. In animals, palmitic acid makes up as much as 30 percent of body fat. It accounts for anywhere from 5 to 50 percent of lipids in vegetable fats, being especially abundant in palm oil. Stearic acid is abundant in some vegetable oils such as the cocoa butter and shea butter, and makes up a relatively high proportion of the lipids found in ruminant tallow.
Apart from that fatty acids also serve as energy for the muscles, heart, and other organs as building blocks for cell membranes and as energy storage for the body. Fatty acids that are not used up as energy are converted into triglycerides.
Interestingly, they are used not only in the production of numerous food products but also in soaps, detergents, and cosmetics. Soaps are the sodium and potassium salts of fatty acids. Some skin-care products contain fatty acids, which can help maintain healthy skin appearance and function.
Triacylglycerols
Triacylglycerols (TAG) is the major form of dietary lipid in fats and oils, whether derived from plants or animals. Triacylglycerol is composed of three fatty acids esterified to a glycerol molecule. They are formed by linking fatty acids with an ester linkage to three alcohol groups in glycerol. The melting temperature of fatty TAG varies with degree of saturation and chain length.
They are several major roles of triacylglycerols such as functioning as energy storage. They are very rich in energy, containing double the energy of either carbohydrates or proteins that is used to supply energy to the body. TAG are stored in the liver or in fat cells to supply the body with energy when it is required. This is a natural process that allows the body to go for longer periods of time without eating, as it has a stored energy source.
Furthermore, triglycerides can serve as insulation from cold as well. An extreme example is blubber found in whales and seals. Triglycerides also function in shock absorption by cushioning the organs.
TAG are also capable in forming soap via saponification. They were prepared using either sodium hydroxide to produce hard soap while potassium hydroxide to produce the soft ones.
Glycerophospholipids
Glycerophospholipids (GPLs) were said to be the major lipid component of biological membranes. They are fatty acid diglycerides with a phosphatidyl ester attached to the terminal carbon. The terminal ester groups (X), can be referred in figure below, are mainly ethanolamine, choline, serine, or inositol. GPLs are highly amphiphilic and normally are components of cellular or vesicle membranes. These building blocks determine the characteristic properties of glycerophospholipids, such as their amphiphatic nature, with an apolar, hydrophobic fatty acid “tail” and a polar, hydrophilic “head”. This can lead to the formation of micelles, liposomes, and bilayers.
Glycerophospholipids
Glycerophospholipids are mainly inolved in the formation of the cellular membranes of all organisms and organelles within cells. Cell membranes are phospholipid bilayers, with the hydrophobic fatty acid residues oriented towards each other and the hydrophilic head groups oriented to the outside such as cytosol and extracellular compartment.
Sphingolipids
Sphingolipids are a class of lipids with two nonpolar tails and a polar head group, known as amphipathic molecule. The core of sphingolipids are the amino alcohol called sphingosides,which sphingolipids were derived from. N-acyl acid derivatives of sphingolipids are known as ceramides. Sphingolipids brings about functions such as cell signaling mediators and modulators. They play a vital role in the structural components of lipoproteins,membranes,skin, and other biomaterials. Some of the examples are sphingomyelins, cerebrosides, and gangliosides.
Sphingomyelins are one of the types of sphingolipids which contains either either phosphocholine or phosphoethanolamine. They are the most abundant in nervous tissue namely in the myelin that surrounds and insulates nerve cells but possibly can occur in blood as well. They are one of the plasma membrane components and participates in many signaling pathways.
On the other hand, cerebrosides are the important components in animal muscle and nerve cell membranes. They are the head group which consists of a single sugar, which is the ceramide with a single sugar residue at the 1-hydroxyl moiety. They can be abundantly found in brain white matter and nerve myelin sheath, where they are present in small quantity within the cell membranes of other tissues.
Apart from that, gangliosides are the head group with 3 or more sugars attached. The primary components of gangliosides constitute 6% of brain lipids. Gangliosides are members of a family of glycolipids predominantly located on neuronal and myelin membranes in the central and peripheral nervous systems. They can help to regulate physiological functions as they act as receptors for pituitary glycoprotein hormones. Other functions including stimulating neuronal cell outgrowth in axons and dendrites, and stabilisation of synaptic connections for information storage as the basis of memory.
Gangliosides
Isoprenoids
Isoprenoid refers to any of a class of organic compounds composed of two or more units of hydrocarbons, with each unit consisting of five carbon atoms arranged in a specific pattern. Isoprenoids play widely varying roles in the physiological processes of plants and animals. They also have a number of commercial uses. They consists of steroids, terpenes, eicosanoids and lipids soluble vitamins.
Steroids are biomolecules which comprises of three 6-membered rings and one 5-membered ring that are combined forming its stucture. Steroid has numerous functions which includes to control metabolism, inflammation, immune functions, salt and water balance, development of sexual characteristics, and the ability to withstand illness and injury. Cholesterol is the most typical type of steroids present in animals and precursors for all other steroids in animals. One of the many other examples of steroids includes cortisol, progesterone, estradiol, testosterone, cholic acid, and deoxycholic acid.
Steroids
Terpenes are aromatic compounds that provides aroma mainly to cannabis and to other plants as well. Terpenes are known to be the major biosynthetic building blocks in their activated forms such as isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP) within mostly in living creatures. They were derived from units of isoprene and contributes several biological functions such as forming vitamins and precursors, visual pigments, and chloroplast pigments. Examples of terpenes includes vitamin A while steroid being one of the derivatives.
Eicosanoids are signaling molecules made by oxidation of C20 essential fatty acids (EFAs). They were derived from either omega-3 (ω-3) or omega-6 (ω-6). They comprised of four families namely prostaglandins, prostacyclins, thromboxanes and leukotrienes. These molecules almost always act on the cells that produce them or on neighboring cells, for instance, over short distances and time periods, and therefore can be classified as autocrine/paracrine hormones. They are widely distributed in the cells and tissues of the body and have wide-ranging biological actions. The eicosanoids play important roles in endocrine systems. They also play a role in inflammation, fever promotion, blood pressure regulation, and blood clotting. They also influence the immune response and certain respiratory and reproductive processes.
Fat soluble/ Lipids soluble vitamins comprises of vitamin, A,D,E and K. Vitamin A plays an important role in the visual cycle of rod cells. The most active form is retinal at which it forms an imine with an –NH2 group of the protein opsin to form visual pigment called rhodopsin. The primary chemical event of vision in rod cells is absorption of light by rhodopsin followed by isomerization of the 11-cis double bond to the 11-trans double bond.
Vitamin D promotes calcium absorption in the gut and maintains adequate serum calcium and phosphate concentrations to enable normal mineralization of bone and to prevent hypocalcemic tetany. It is also needed for bone growth and bone remodeling by osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Other than that, it also facilitates the modulation of cell growth, neuromuscular and immune function, and reduction of inflammation.
Vitamin E is a group of eight fat soluble compounds[1] that include four tocopherols and four tocotrienols. Vitamin E is a fat-soluble antioxidant protecting cell membranes from reactive oxygen species. Alpha tocopherol is the most common and most potent form of the vitamin. vitamin E is incorporated into cell membranes, which are therefore protected from oxidative damage. In addition, they also affects gene expression and act as an enzyme activity regulator, such as for protein kinase C which plays a role in smooth muscle growth. Vitamin E is a good antioxidant that traps HOO• and ROO• radicals formed as a result of oxidation by O2 of unsaturated hydrocarbon chains in membrane phospholipids.
The RRR alpha-tocopherol form of vitamin E
Vitamin K is a group of structurally similar, fat-soluble vitamins. Vitamin K includes two natural vitamers namely vitamin K1 and vitamin K2. Vitamin K2 consists of a number of related chemical subtypes, with differing lengths of carbon side chains made of isoprenoid groups of atoms. On the other hand, vitamin K1, also known as phylloquinone or phytomenadione, is made by plants, and is found in highest amounts in green leafy vegetables because it is directly involved in photosynthesis. Vitamin K plays a crucial role in blood clotting, bone metabolism, and regulating blood calcium levels.
So there you have it! It’s quite a lengthy post, but I am delighted to share the lessons as briefly as I could. Thanks for coming by!
In this post, I will be sharing my thoughts and knowledge I’ve obtained from our lectures as well as lecture notes on carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates are known to be the most abundant biological molecules on Earth consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. They are vital in providing energy to the body.
Carbohydrates
Some of the key functions includes, storing energy of glycogen and starch, an essential structural components of cellulose and chitin, involved in cellular recognition for glycoproteins and glycolipids, and they are the derivatives to DNA, RNA, and co-factors.
On top of that, carbohydrates can be divided into different classifications namely monosaccharide, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides.
Monosaccharides
Monosacharride is the basic units of carbohydrates and it exist as its simplest form. It contains aldehydes or ketones group with two or more hydroxyl groups. Hence, they are called polyhydroxyl aldoses or ketoses.
In terms of stereochemistry, monosaccharides demonstrate chiral image at which its mirror image are not superimposable to one another. For instance, when aldoses and ketoses each have three or more carbons, they are considered chiral. Apart from that, monosaccharides also display enantiomers, diastereomers, and epimers.
On top of that, monosaccharide can be in a cyclic form where it exists almost entirely as 5- and 6- membered rings. In its ring form, monosaccharide can also be shown as Haworth Projections, allowing it to cyclize to form pyranose or furanose forms.
On the other hand, as they are in uncyclized form, monosaccharide can act as reducing agents, for instance, free carbonyl group from aldoses or ketoses can reduce Cu2+ and Ag+ ions to insoluble products.
Above all, there are two ways of deriving monosaccharides mainly due to the presence of hydroxyl, aldehyde, and ketone groups that made the derivatization easier and they are namely the reduction and esterification processes. Examples for monosaccharides includes glucose, ribose, fructose, and glyceraldehyde.
One major function of a monosaccharide is its use for energy within a living organism. Glucose is a commonly known carbohydrate that is metabolized within cells to create fuel. In the presence of oxygen, glucose breaks down into carbon dioxide and water, and energy is released as a byproduct. Glucose is a product of photosynthesis, and plants obtain energy from glucose through respiration. Humans acquire glucose from food, and the body transforms this monosaccharide into energy.
Disaccharides
Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharides were held together by glycosidic bond where the position of which may be designated α- or β- or a combination of the two (α-, β-) in a molecule. They have 12 carbon atoms, and their chemical formula is C12H22O11. They are formed via dehydration reactions where one water molecule was removed from two monosaccharides.
Disaccharides can be classified into two namely, reducing disaccharides and non-reducing disaccharides. Reducing disaccharides, in which one monosaccharide of the reducing sugar of the pair, still has a free hemiacetal unit that can perform as a reducing aldehyde group.
On the other hand, non-reducing disaccharides is defined at which the component monosaccharides bond through an acetal linkage between their anomeric centers. This will lead to neither the monosaccharide being left with a hemiacetal unit that is free to act as a reducing agent.
One of the many prominent disaccharides are sucrose where table salt is made of. Other than that, would be lactose which can be found in found in breast milk and provides nutrition for infants. Maltose, a disccharide as well, is also well-known for its use in chocolates and other candies.
On top of that, disaccharides is also prominently known as simple carbohydrates. Their function is to provide our bodies with a quick source of energy since they’re only made up of two sugar molecules which causes them to be easily broken down by enzymes in our digestive system into their respective monosaccharides and then absorbed into our bloodstream.
Apart from that, disaccharides can essentially be the best choices immediately before and during workout since it is a fast-absorbing carbs. The quick source of energy provided by disaccharide-rich foods improves muscle performance and endurance.
Oligosaccharides
Oligosaccharides is a form of carbohydrates that links three to six units of monosaccharides in their structure.
Oligosaccharides undergoes glycosylation, a process where a carbohydrate is covalently attached to an organic molecule. It was classified into two types and they are N-Linked oligosaccharides and O-Linked oligosaccharides. N-Linked glycosylation involves oligosaccharide attachment to asparagine via a beta linkage to the amine nitrogen of the side chain. The process of N-linked glycosylation occurs cotranslationally while the proteins is being translated. Due to the hydrophilic property of sugars, N-Linked glycosylation is able to determine the folding of polypeptides.
On the other hand, O-Linked oligosaccharides that participates in O-Linked glycosylation are attached to threonine or serine on the hydroxyl group of the side chain. The following process takes place in the Golgi apparatus where monosaccharide units are added to a complete polypeptide chain.
One of the many examples of oliogosaccharides are Raffinose, which can be often spotted in plants. Lactosucrose, which is produced from lactose and sucrose and N-acetylchito-oligosaccharides which derived from chitosan.
Raffinose
One of the many uses of oligosaccharides is to prevent constipation since a large number of them commonly act as a soluble fiber. For instance, fructo-oligosaccharides short-term seems to relieve constipation in adults. In addition, fructo-oligosaccharides are often used in combination with probiotics for this condition. There is also evidence that adding fructo-oligosaccharides to milk or infant formula can improve symptoms of constipation in infants who are not breast-feeding.
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharide are long chains of molecules bounded by glycosidic linkages that consists of many monosaccharide units. Special enzymes that can bind the monomers together will create polysaccharide, a large sugar polymers.
Polysaccharide
Polysaccharide can be divided into two types and they are homopolysaccharide and heteropolysaccharide, respectively.
Homopolysaccharide is composed of only one type of monomer while heteropolysaccharide comprises many different types of monomers in the molecule chains.
Storage of glycogen and starch are vital for polysaccharide. Glycogen serves as the secondary long-term energy storage in animal and fungal cells, with the primary energy stores being held in adipose tissue. Glycogen is made primarily by the liver and the muscles but can also be made by glycogenesis within the brain and stomach.
Glycogen is a polymer of α (1→4) glycosidic bonds linked, with α (1→6)-linked branches with branches are formed every 8 to 12 glucose. Glycogen is found in the form of granules in the cytosol/cytoplasm in many cell types, and plays an important role in the glucose cycle.
Glycogen
Starch on the other hand, is a glucose polymer in which glucopyranose units are bonded by alpha-linkages. They compose of two forms of starch, and they are amylose which contains about 15–20% and about 80-85% of amylopectin in starch.
Other primary examples of starch are cellulose which is a homopolymer that wields a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousands β (1→4) linked D-glucose unit and chitin which is one of many naturally occurring polymers that forms structural component of many animals, such as exoskeletons.
Celullose
Polysaccharides are usually used for storing energy, some for sending cellular messages, and others for providing support to cells and tissues. For digestible polysaccharides, such as starch, are digested in the mouth and small intestine in several steps that eventually yield glucose, which is absorbed. They are a source of energy and also provide carbon atoms for the synthesis of fats, proteins and other substances in our body.
Example of digestible polysaccharides : Starch
However, for non-digestible polysaccharides or dietary fibre , such as cellulose, promote the passage of food through the gut and thus help maintain bowel regularity. Some non-digestible polysaccharides, such as inulin, may also promote the growth of beneficial intestinal bacteria.
Example of non-digestible polysaccharides: Cellulose
That’s it folks! The reflections I’ve constructed was not solely sourced from the lecture notes, however, I did some initiatives on taking a few ideas from the internet for extra references. I hope it’s a good read!
In this post, it is going to be about problem-based learning (PBL) session we did on June. We were asked to form a group earlier on to discuss about a situation given in the form of video, a trigger that describes a family in Rwanda, Burundi on nutrition.
After completing discussing on the situation, each of the member in the group will present their findings or solutions in order to come up with a conclusion, and wrap up the whole discussion. A FILA table is included together as a guideline for us in completing the PBL session. Below shows the file attachment of the FILA table.
On the other hand, vitamins and cofactors were emphasized on the situation. Therefore, I’ve prepared a mind-map of vitamins that was solely based on our lecture notes. Here have a look! I have also attached a PDF version of it for a clearer view.
This task reviews on vitamins. A vitamin is an organic molecule that is an essential micronutrient which an organism needs in small quantities for the proper functioning of its metabolism. I’ve prepared a mind-map of each class of vitamins, here, take a look!
I would like to apologise on the size of the mind-map. It is somehow abnormally enormous. To resolve that, I have attached a PDF version of for a better view. Here you go!
The industrial uses of enzymes are also increasing since they are being used in the production of biofuels and biopolymers. The enzymes can be harvested from microbial sources or can be made synthetically. The below infographic shows the different types of industrial enzymes together with their applications in industry. Let’s take a look!
In this post, it is going to be about amino acid and how it turns into protein.
There are 20 common amino acid structures in total but they can also be found in a more complex form. All of the 20 amino acids can be referred below in the form of mind map. Take a look!
For a better depiction of the mind-map, it is also viewable in PDF format:
This task requires knowledge on the non-covalent interactions. I have attached the infographics of the four types of non-covalent interactions below! Come, take a look!
So how was it? and really sorry for the terrible quality because the options to download it are limited and most of them are paid-type options. However, I’ve attached a file which shows the clearer infographic for the poster. I hope it helps! Thanks for coming by!
Reflection on interactions between H2O molecules and salt (NaCl) when dissolved in water:
Based on my understanding in class, when salt is placed in water, the water molecules will start to pull the sodium and chloride ions apart, breaking the ionic bond that held them together. After the salt compounds are pulled apart, the sodium and chloride atoms are surrounded by water molecules. The surrounded water molecules forms strong hydrogen bond to one another which prevents the sodium ion and chloride ion to recombine. Once this happens, the salt is dissolved, resulting in a homogeneous solution.
A video explaining the reaction is re-imagined into an analogy to help us understand better! Click the link below to watch! Enjoy!
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Biochemistry: E-Portfolio 